Tamiflu is a medicine that is to be taken when you are infected by the influenza virus. Now that I have covered what Tamiflu is briefly I will go into the details and then give you a study on the effects of Tamiflu when you are pregnant and lactating because this too is an important part of pregnancy.

How Tamiflu treats the Flu

The main ingredient of the Tamiflu medicine is the Oseltamivir phosphate. This medicine belongs among a group of medications which is called the neuraminidase inhibitors. The medicine acts in this way; it attacks the influenza virus in the body and stops it from spreading inside the body. This is a great cure. You will feel the symptoms reducing within a span of two days. Most other medications for flu go for the symptoms and try to cure the symptoms or mask them. So you can simply say that Tamiflu treats the flu at the source of the infection.

Tamiflu Dosage

For knowing its effects on pregnancy one should know the dosage of the capsule. Each capsule of the medication contains seventy five grams of the active drug. The capsule is a grey and light yellow capsule. For persons afflicted by the flu, they re supposed to take two capsules orally; one capsule in the morning and one in the evening. For people who have been exposed to the influenza virus and they who are taking this medicine as a preventive measure against the flu should take only one seventy five grams capsule in a day. In the earlier case the person is prescribed this medicine for a period of five days and in the second case for a period of seven days. So this is the approximate dosage of what a pregnant lady will have if she is faced with the consequences of taking Tamiflu.

Studies conducted on the medication for pregnancy

Now I will be discussing the studies conducted on the medication for pregnancy. The FDA has categorized this drug under the medical category “C”. The data collected is insufficient to give a clear picture on the effects of Tamiflu on pregnant women and her developing fetus. As there was no human specimens in the tests initial tests were conducted on rats. Then in a later stage we switched over to rabbits. The pregnant rats were given Tamiflu in different proportions. They were administered dosages of fifty, two hundred and fifty and one thousand five hundred milligrams for per kilogram per day. The rabbits were given fifty, one hundred and fifty and five hundred milligrams for every kilogram per day. Both these animals were given the medication by the oral route. The relative exposure rates were accounted for. In a rat the exposure for these doses was two, thirteen and a hundred times. In the case of the rabbit it was four, eight and a fifty times. Pharmacokinetic study showed that fetal exposure was there in both the cases. In the case of the rats, the maternal toxicity was minimal that too in the one thousand five hundred milligram per kilogram per day group. The rabbit showed slight maternal toxicities. Skeletal abnormalities were observed in the cases where the doses were increased. However the abnormality remained in the background.

The studies came to the conclusion as such, “Tamiflu should be prescribed to a pregnant woman only if the case justifies the potential benefit of the fetus.”

A similar study was conducted on rats and rabbits for the effects of Tamiflu in lactating mothers. It was observed that Oseltamivir and Oseltamivir carboxylate are given out in the milk. A similar human study could not be conducted due to the lack of lactating mothers infected by the flu who are willing to contribute towards experimentation.

Normal and short-term phenomenon Early pregnancy back pain is a normal phenomenon in this most beautiful period of a woman’s life. Most of the expectant mothers witness some degree of back pain during the early phase of pregnancy and this pain generally subsides after about 20 weeks. Backache or spasm, which is reflected by stretching of muscles or burning pain in the left or the right side of the quadrant, is normally the result of the softening of the supporting ligaments and disks due to an increase in the progesterone hormone during the early stage. In some cases, urinary infection during pregnancy can also result in pain in the back amongst pregnant women. The extra weight of a pregnant women’s body and the change in her centre of gravity also result in backaches and pain. Remedies For Pregnancy Back Pain The most important and safe remedy for the treatment of early pregnancy back pain is exercising. This is mainly because certain medications for back related pain is contraindicated during early pregnancy. Walking, pelvic rocking, bridging (done by lying down on the floor, bending your knees and lifting your buttocks into air), mini-crunches (done by lying down on the floor), bending your knees and lifting your head on exhalation, are good exercises for relief from pack pain during early pregnancy. Pregnant women do these exercises on their own to relieve back pain. The right body posture and good body mechanics also play an important role in keeping one free of early pregnancy back pain. The right posture for prevention of back pain is standing straight and tall. However, the importance for correct postures is as essential in early pregnancy as before that. However, in late pregnancy, as the uterus becomes big, one tends to pull back her shoulders to offset the additional weight, which results in a back strain. You can reduce this pain during later stages in such a position by frequently changing your sitting position and avoiding standing for long periods. Adequate rest and sleep are also essential for avoiding or eliminating early pregnancy back pain. You should take proper rest and avoid strenuous activities to avoid it during your pregnancy. You can also do normal yoga exercises to eliminate minor pain. However, if it persists you should consult your doctor and take proper medication for relief from back pain. In some cases of pain in the back, doctors may prescribe physiotherapy for relief. Massages and use of special mattresses are also effective for back pain relief during pregnancy.

It can be bad news for you when you forget your regular contraceptive pills, or the condom tore during sex. But you shouldn’t be missing your breath with emergency contraceptive pills around. Throughout the United Kingdom many women use emergency birth control pills, also known as EC pills or birth control pills, to prevent unwanted pregnancy. If you want to go by statistics, these pills are the safest bet as far as prevention of pregnancy is concerned. ellaOne and Levonelle, the 2 most sought after EC pills available on the UK market, have been enjoying a high rate of success as well as trust of many women.

Can I still get pregnant after taking an EC pill after sex?

Yes, you can. The effectiveness of an EC pill depends on when you take it after sex. For example, you need to take an ellaOne pill within 120 hours from unprotected sex or contraceptive failure. Similarly you must take a Levonelle 1500 pill within 72 hours from unprotected sex or contraceptive failure.

If you have sex after taking an emergency birth control pill, you may still become pregnant. For more details on the risk of pregnancy, kindly check in with your doctor or GP.

How can I get EC pills?

You can buy EC pills online or from your neighbourhood drugstore, but only on a valid prescription. There are certain pills that you can buy over the counter also, but then you may have to compromise with safety. It is strongly recommend that women under the age of 18 should always consult a doctor before trying EC pills.

How many times can I use emergency contraceptive pills?

There are no limits to using EC pills. You can take a pill every time after unprotected sex or when you fear that your regular contraceptive method failed. However, repeated use is not advisable as it may disrupt your menstrual cycle.

Headaches during pregnancy are very challenging as over the counter pain killers are not recommended. Read on to see what you can do to relieve the pain from your headaches during pregnancy.

First of all let’s address why some pregnant women suffer from headaches during pregnancy. Within the first 12 weeks of pregnancy the surging hormones play a part in the development of pregnancy headaches. The 40% increase in blood volume that occurs during pregnancy increases pressure within the blood vessels and this itself can cause pregnancy headaches. Headaches during the last month of pregnancy may also be caused by a condition called preeclampsia, which is associated with high blood pressure, swelling and protein in the urine.

It is normal to have headaches during pregnancy because of the above reasons plus the following:

Stress

Lack of sleep

Vomiting

Low blood sugar

Dehydration

Caffeine withdrawal

Nicotine withdrawal

Poor posture

Pregnancy related vision changes

What you can do to ease your pregnancy headaches:

Reduce stress.

Get more sleep.

Treat your early morning sickness.

Eat regularly to avoid low blood sugar levels.

Drink adequate amounts of high quality water.

Get chiropractic adjustments and advice to correct your posture.

Avoid over the counter medication especially during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy.

Consult a homeopath or an acupuncturist for treatments to relieve your pain.

Pregnancy headaches are sometimes relieved with either hot or cold compress around your forehead and on the back of your neck.

Have someone massage your shoulders and neck during acute pregnancy headaches.

Rest in a dark room and practice deep relaxation breathing.

Relaxing in a warm bath or shower sometimes reduces the stress and tension.

The fruit mangosteen is well known to support every system in the body. It is all natural and can relieve and prevent pregnancy headaches.

You tried all the above and you still have a pregnancy headache:

At this point it would be appropriate to call your doctor or midwife for advice.

Have your eyesight checked as you may need glasses or a change in glasses.

 If you experience any of these symptoms below with a headache call your physician or midwife immediately as these are signs of a severe pregnancy complication called pre-eclampsia:

Blurred vision

Right sided abdomen pain

Swollen hands and face

Sudden weight gain

Feeling very agitated or restless

 Pregnancy headaches can be very painful and very frustrating, as it is not recommended that you use over the counter medication during pregnancy. I have assisted pregnant women in the past to make their headaches a little more manageable or made them go away with a one on one coaching-healing phone sessions.

Many of my pregnant clients have experienced improvement of their pregnancy headaches by taking mangosteen juice. Mangosteen is present in different quantities in different products. For a high quality mangosteen and information on my one on one coaching-healing session visit http://www.VemmaMidwife.com

You may also be very interested in an amazing message that was telepathically dictated to me for humanity from my son when he was seven-weeks old. Yes you read correctly! I have the ability to communicate with baby’s emotions from inside and outside the womb. Down load this AMAZING MESSAGE FREE at http://www.PregnancySuccessCoach.com/Message_For_Humanity.html

If you wish to ask me a personal question about your pregnancy or an issue in your life then visit http://www.PregnancySuccessCoach.com/Ask_Hannah_Section.html

Hannah Bajor. C.N.M.,M.S.N.

Certified Nurse Midwife

Pregnancy Success Coach

Heartburn relief during pregnancy is a common concern many pregnant women have. Read on to see what you what heartburn remedies during pregnancy are available.

What causes early pregnancy heartburn?

Heartburn in early pregnancy is a common complaint. The hormone progesterone is released as soon a woman becomes pregnant and can cause many early pregnancy symptoms which include pregnancy heartburn. Progesterone causes relaxation of the cardiac sphincter of the stomach which is the muscle between the stomach and the esophagus (food pipe). Relaxation of this muscle allows for some gastric acid and food to flow backwards and re-enter the esophagus (food pipe). Gastric acid irritates the lining of the esophagus causing a burning sensation in the center of the chest called pregnancy heartburn.

As your baby grows bigger and takes up more room in the abdominal area, the stomach itself is displaced and squashed. The growing uterus can permanently press on the cardiac sphincter of the stomach and allow gastric juices and food to constantly leak back into the esophagus (wind pipe) which may cause severe heartburn during pregnancy.

Heartburn remedies during pregnancy

Heartburn relief during pregnancy can be achieved by eating yogurt or drinking a glass of milk.

Try a tablespoon of honey in a glass of warm milk for pregnancy heartburn relief.

Eat smaller more frequent meals throughout the day rather than three large meals.

Avoid spicy, greasy, fatty foods, peppers and tomatoes produce extra gastric acid causing pregnancy heartburn.

Avoid foods that relax the cardiac sphincter of the stomach such as alcohol, peppermint, garlic, and chocolate.

Avoid eating for at least two hours before going to bed.

Do not lie down after eating to prevent the food from the stomach flowing back into your esophagus causing pregnancy heartburn.

Mild over-the-counter antacids such as Mylanta or Tums may prove helpful in relieving heartburn pregnancy symptom.

If your heartburn symptoms are severe or accompanied by headache or swelling (especially if you are later on in pregnancy) consult with your health care provider immediately as you may have pre-eclampsia of pregnancy.

Sleeping with extra pillows under your head to keep your stomach lower than your esophagus (food pipe) works very well to give you a better start to the day and a better nights sleep.

One of the most effective heartburn remedies during pregnancy is to try to prevent heartburn developing in the first place. The healthier you are prior pregnancy and the healthier you eat during pregnancy can have a direct correlation to the amount of pregnancy symptoms you have. I would like to invite you to supplement with a high quality Mangosteen and mineral product that many of my pregnant clients use to correct misalignments within the body and encourage the stomach to produce the right amount of gastric acid that you body needs for digestion. Visit http://www.VemmaMidwife.com

You may also be very interested in an amazing message that was telepathically dictated to me for humanity from my son when he was seven-weeks old. Yes you read correctly! I have the ability to communicate with baby’s emotions from inside and outside the womb. Down load this AMAZING MESSAGE FREE at http://www.PregnancySuccessCoach.com/Message_For_Humanity.html

If you wish to ask me a personal question about your pregnancy or an issue in your life then visit http://www.PregnancySuccessCoach.com/Ask_Hannah_Section.html

Hannah Bajor. C.N.M.,M.S.N.

Certified Nurse Midwife.

Pregnancy Success Coach 

Incoming search terms:

heartburn misery (1)

 There are many very early pregnancy symptoms and how can you tell if they are a sign of pregnancy? The more of these symptoms you have that are listed below then the higher probability there is that you are pregnant. Read through the list below and see how many of these very early pregnancy symptoms you have.

  Very Early Pregnancy Symptoms:

Most pregnant women have some very early pregnancy symptoms. On the rare occasion some women have no symptoms of early pregnancy except that them miss their menstrual period. Some women are so busy in their lives that they are unaware that their menstrual period was due and forget they did not get their periods.

You missed your menstrual period could indicate you are pregnant.

You menstrual period was late and you only had some mild spotting instead of a proper menstrual flow.

You are experiencing morning sickness and/or vomiting first thing in the morning could indicate pregnancy.

Your food suddenly tastes differently and you now dislike certain foods.

You are suddenly craving certain foods is a very early symptom of pregnancy, which indicates you are depleted in minerals.

Your breasts are tender and seem to be enlarging.

The brown part of your nipple (the areola) is becoming darker and bigger.

You notice your energy level is lower and you are feeling tired all the time.

You have more mood swings than normal, which can be a result of sudden hormone changes that occurs in pregnancy.

You are making more trips to the bathroom to urinate and there is not pain associated with urination is a common very early symptom of pregnancy.

You start to experience headaches that can be a direct effect of hormones as a symptom of early pregnancy.

Diagnosis of Pregnancy:

If you are sexually active and have one or more of the above early symptom of pregnancy then purchase a home pregnancy kit. Test your urine first thing in the morning when your urine is more concentrated to see if you are pregnant or not. These pregnancy tests are very sensitive and very accurate; a positive test means you are definitely pregnant. A negative pregnancy test may not conclusive especially if you performed it incorrectly or not testing an early morning urine sample.

Now what:

If you believe you are pregnant, seek medical or midwifery advice to confirm pregnancy and discuss your pregnancy plans.

If you are taking prescription medications, notify your health care provider immediately that you are pregnant to seek advice about your medication.

While you are waiting for your appointment, start taking a daily multivitamin which has at least 400 micrograms of folic acid in it to prevent congenital abnormalities.

Take adequate mineral supplements to prevent pregnancy complications.

Eat good nutritious food and make sure you increase your protein intake.

Stop all alcohol intake and stop smoking cigarettes or drastically reduce, your baby’s life depends on you.

Also see medical or midwifery advice if you are not pregnant and you menstrual period does not come within the next month as you may have an underlying medical condition.

Pregnancy Statistics:

65% of all pregnancies are unplanned.

25% of all pregnancies ends in a miscarriage.

25% of women choose to terminate their pregnancy.

Finding out you are pregnant can be a very welcoming experience in your life or it can also be a time of tremendous stress for you. My book “Birth, A Conscious Choice” offers amazing insights and comfort into pregnancy, miscarriage, adoption and termination of pregnancy. It is not just for pregnant women but for anyone who has had an issue with their mother or a pregnancy related trauma. For pregnancy products, pregnancy one on one coaching and pregnancy information view

http://www.PregnancySuccessCoach.com

You may also be very interested in an amazing message that was telepathically dictated to me for humanity from my son when he was seven-weeks old. Yes you read correctly! I have the ability to communicate with baby’s emotions from inside and outside the womb. Down load this AMAZING MESSAGE FREE at 

 

http://www.PregnancySuccessCoach.com/Message_For_Humanity.html

If you wish to ask me a personal question about your pregnancy or an issue in your life then visit 

http://www.PregnancySuccessCoach.com/Ask_Hannah_Section.html

Hannah Bajor. C.N.M.,M.S.N.

Certified Nurse Midwife

Pregnancy Success Coach

 

 

The online resources and tools available have never been greater
with calendar pregnancy weekly and online ovulation calculator
to assist couples before, during and after pregnancy. A free
online calendar pregnancy weekly provides a wonderful system of
support by calculate due date for pregnancy (after the required
information is entered) throughout the duration of the pregnancy.

The online ovulation calculator is similar to the calendar
pregnancy weekly (calculate due date for pregnancy) in that
information regarding a woman’s menstrual cycle is entered to
come up with estimated information. In the case of the online
ovulation calculator a woman must enter the first day of her
last menstrual period and the length of the cycle (how many
days), to determine her peak fertility period or the best time
to get pregnant (increasing a couple’s chances at getting
pregnant). These online ovulation calculator can be found online
for free and are a wonderful tool to help control your fertility
period so a couple can have sex during the most fertile period.

Both the online ovulation calculator and online calendar
pregnancy weekly (calculate due date for pregnancy) can offer
helpful information and tips to couples wanting to get pregnant
and during pregnancy. Some of the advice available on the online
calendar pregnancy weekly can include:

• having a healthy baby;

• parenting roles;

• health care during pregnancy;

• labor and birth;

• work and pregnancy;

• preparing for the baby;

• first, second and third trimester information;

• baby names;

• baby gear;

• breast feeding and,

• complications that can occur during pregnancy and birth to
name a few.

Of course the information provided in the by calendar pregnancy
week week is only to be used as a general guide as each
pregnancy is unique, with some babies developing faster or
slower than others.

To calculate due date for pregnancy a couple can use a calendar
pregnancy weekly. Similar to the online ovulation calculator a
woman would enter the first day of her last menstrual period,
the pregnancy due date calendar will than determine the
pregnancy due date. After a pregnancy due date is established
the calendar pregnancy weekly will give a week by week update on
what is happening with the pregnancy, with plenty of information
and advice to look forward to. Again the calendar date due
pregnancy is only an estimate, depending on the pregnancy a
woman’s due date can vary and be earlier or later than the due
date.

If you’ve already used an online ovulation calculator, using a
calendar pregnancy weekly to calculate due date for pregnancy
will be easy. By simply entering the first day of a woman’s last
menstrual period the calendar pregnancy weekly will calculate a
couple’s pregnancy due date. A pregnancy due date calendar is an
excellent way to receive regular updates with helpful pregnancy
advice and information. Most of the online by calendar pregnancy
week week sites available are free with some charging a small
fee for additional information such as personalized baby
reports, guides, video library, product reviews, consumer
reports and saving on baby gear and products.

Starting with the online ovulation calculator a woman can enter
the first day of her last menstrual period and determine her
peak fertility period. Afterwards during pregnancy a couple’s
best friend throughout the pregnancy will be the calendar
pregnancy weekly, this will calculate due date for pregnancy and
offer a multitude of helpful information from conception through
to birth. A pregnancy due date calendar will essentially build a
day by day customized calendar which will detail the development
of baby from before conception until birth.

A calendar pregnancy weekly (calculate due date for pregnancy,
just as the online ovulation calculator determines peak fertile
period) can offer information to include:

• mom and dad roles;

• health care throughout pregnancy;

• complications;

• first, second and third trimester information;

• labor and birth;

• work and pregnancy;

• preparing for baby;

• naming baby;

• managing your weight;

• bed rest;

• pregnancy symptoms;

• sex during pregnancy;

• relationships during pregnancy;

• birth announcements;

• twins and multiples;

• emotions and moods;

• ultrasound photos;

• prenatal vitamin information for mother;

• how the baby is growing inside mother;

• and suggested reading.

Both the online ovulation calculator and calendar pregnancy
weekly (calculate due date for pregnancy) are excellent tools
that are sure to be appreciated by both expecting mothers and
fathers. Of course the calendar pregnancy weekly should only be
used as a general guide as each pregnancy is unique with some
babies developing more quickly or slower than others, and should
never replace the advice of your obstetrician. It’s also nice to
know that after your bundle of joy is born several of the online
pregnancy due date calendar can be used to receive further
updates on breast feeding, bulletin boards (share and read
advice from other moms and dads), shopping, newborn and baby
information, toddler (12-24 months), preschooler information and
older kids information (5-8 years)

PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS IN ruminants

1 Introduction

Rectal palptation in small ruminants is of little value due to the size of the pelvis. (Wani, 1981). The caudal artery monitoring, bloatment, non-return to oestrus, udder development and other tests tried have had little success, (Wani & Sahni,1980). The more recent interest in early pregnancy 3. diagnosis of small ruminants is of academic and economic importance (Mellado,2003). A highly valued zygote or embryo when transferred to a less valued surrogate mother (recipient) needs to be closely monitored and the early detection of conception helps in repeated use of baren females. Proper management of pregnant animals also prevents embryonic losses. The method applied should be safe to both offspring and dam and needs to be cheap and easily applied. A review of various methods and techniques used for early pregnancy diagnosis in small ruminants. (sheep and goats) is presented.

.2 Early Signs of Pregnancy

2.1. Maintenance of a functional corpus luteum

It was evident that conception prolongs the life of the CL and prolongation and maintenance of a functional CL is triggered by the developing conceptus. These signals ensure the maintenance of the structural integrity of the CL. Corpus luteum produces progesterone, which maintains the uterine endometrium in a state permitting embryonic development, implantation and foetal-placental development (wani,1984b) . The formation and regression of the corpus luteum (CL) in Muzzaffarinagri ewes and Jamunapari goats was monitored at 3 days intervals for an entire oestruous cycle. Laparotomy and laparoscopic methods were used in these experiments.

The Endometrium undergoes tissue remodeling. This change in Extra cellular Matrix (ECM ) components is needed for successful implantation. Cytokinens 8,18 and 19 have been detected in the caprine endometrium during early pregnancy using immunofluorescence. Thus the presence of these cytokinen at approximately day 15 post conception is indicative of pregnancy in goats.

The implantation process in goats starts around day 18 post mating. During this phase intense type I collagen staining was detected throughout the uterine caruncular and intracaruncular stroma. For embryonic trophoblastic adhesions with endometrium, local control of protease activity is suggested. (Guillomot, 1999).

The earliest signs of pregnancy is the non-regression of the cyclic CL, which can be observed by the following methods:

i. Laparoscopy and Laparotomy approximately day 18-25 post mating. (Wani, 1982, 1988, 1984b,Wani & Buchoo, 1990, Wani & Buchoo, 1993, Cuellar et al, 1990, Wani et al, 2003).

ii. Serum Progesterone values higher than 1 ng/ml e.g 2 to 3 ng/ml. (Wani, 1989; Shreif, 1997, Boscas et al, 2003, Al-Merestani et al, 1999, Zarkawiet et al, 1999). Diagnosis of Pregnancy accurately (100%) predicted on the basis of serum progesterone P4 values around 17-19 days post mating .

iii. Pregnancy associated ovine glycoproteins recorded approximately post mating indicate pregnancy in sheep. (Karen et al, 2003; Verberckmoes, et al, 2004) or secretion of 17 & 22-24 K Da proteins on day 17 post mating in the caprine conceptus. (Guillomot et al, 1998).

iv. Non-return to oestrus (Mellado, 2003)

Some of the other early pregnancy signs detected by various methods are set out in Table 1.

3 Non-rejection of early conceptus

Progesterone maintains the uterine endometrium in a state which allows for embryonic development, implantation and foetal placental development. Details of foetomaternal relationships have been described (Mufti, 1997, Mufti et al, 2000)and are shown illustrated in Fig 1to 5. The presence of an early conceptus prolongs the life of corpus- luteum. These pregnancy signals are secreted as proteins. (Heap et al, 1990). Some of these proteins have been identified as ovine Trophablast protein I (OTP-1) in sheep which prevents the release of PGF2 alpha and thus helps in the maintenance of the corpus luteum. In cyclic ewes (non-pregnant) PGF2 alpha pulses are released in response to oxytocin with receptors being in the endometrium. The earliest signal of pregnancy is detected by a marked reduction in the endometrial oxytocin receptor numbers. The OTP-1 may inhibit synthesis of endometrial receptors for oestrogen and oxytocin. This possibly prevents luteolysis and maintains the dominance of theuterus by progesterone which is pre-requisite for the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. (Bretzlaft and Romano, 2001; Wani, 1996; Ala cam et al, 1988).

The expression of progesterone receptors (PR) in the caprine uterus markedly increases during the peri-implantation period and estrogen –(ER) receptors do not increase in relation to PR, thus signaling the non-rejection of the early conceptus. (Flores et al, 2001). Progesterone in milk too can be found during early fertilization and conception (Cough et al, 1989).

Caprine H-type I antigen expression is unregulated during peri-implantation and progesterone P4 level stimulate it. It may be a useful marker to signal uterine preparations for receiving and retaining pregnancy in goats. (Powell et al, 2000). The caprine pregnancy related glycoprotein (Ca PAG) may help the conceptus to develop and is found around 18-19 day post mating . (Garbayo et al 2000). Endometrial tissue the undergoes remodeling to retain the conceptus in gravid small ruminant females. (Guillomot, 1999)

The dephosphorylated state of caprine uterine myocin in early pregnancy may help the conceptus to grow. Changes in the expression of native myocin, myosin heavy chains (MHCS) and myosin light chains (MLCS) were observed. (Kumar and Katoch, 1997).

For the development of the blastocyst, a proper uterine environment is essential. Besides the maintenance of the corpus luteum, production and availability of progesterone, the non-rejection of conceptus (blastocyst) is another critical feature of this period. The embryo produces interferons (embryo-IFN). This embryo IFN is homologous with – interfersons ( ? –IFN) and Ovine Trophoblast Interferons (OTI) of early pregnancy.

Purified OTP and recombinant OTP (r-oTP) produced in yeast exhibit antiviral activity and these r-OTP and OTP inhibit the release of endometrial PGF2 ? . This helps in the non-regression of the CL and indirectly maintains the early conceptus. Intra uterine r-OTP administered at a dose of 340 µg/ day for a week maintained the C.L in cyclic ewes for a month or so of . The inter- oestruos interval in 80% of the ewes was about a month or more. This dose r-OTP was as a effective as 14-16 day old conceptus. OTP was found to be immunosuppressive in several in-vitro and in-vivo assays. An assay on phytohaemagglutinin A revealed both OTP and r-OTP to be immunosuppressive. This was further verified by the inhibitory activity of r-OTP in Graft Versus Host Reaction. (GVH assays). Trophoblast interferons play a strategic role in the prevention of early pregnancy loss as it inhibits CD + blastogenesis. The role of CD + cells and as helper T lymphocytes and delayed+ Type hyper sensitivity mediators (DTHS) would explain this immuno- suppressive rate of OTP. (ILeri et al, 1996; Karen et al, 2003; Wani, 1996).

3.4 Oestrogen: – Pregesterone ratio (E:P ratio)

The role of oxytocin in inducing uterine PGF2 alpha was discussed earlier. However, the release of PGF2 under the action of oxytocin depends on or is controlled by progesterone and oestradiol. It was further indicated that ewes with a high E:P ratio may generate stronger luteolytic signals. It was demonstrated that low progesterone and high oestradiol combination record the largest and sustained increase in PGF2 alpha following oxytocin injection. Trophoblast interferons act locally to suppress the uterine oxytocin receptors in sheep.(Karen et al, 2003 ).

5 Maternal recognition of pregnancy

The maternal recognition of pregnancy in sheep and cattle is centered around the production by the trophoblast of type I x interferon (tINF). This tIFN then suppresses uterine oxytocin receptor concentrations (OTr). The oxytocin receptor (OTr) occupancy is associated with oxytocin induced PGF2 alpha release. OTr inhibition may represent the principal antiluteolytic mechanism of tIFN and secretion of the conceptus secretory proteins or bovine recombinant IFN to the uterus reduces OTr. Concentrations in intact and ovarectionized steroid treated ewes . A relationship between the conceptus secretory proteins and the metabolic products and those in the peripheral blood of the dam exists. ( Mufti; 1996; Mufti et al, 2000). There are conflicting reports making the action of oestradiol on oxytocin receptor concentration. (Powell et al, 2000). Trophoblastic cells contain interferon on day 14-17 after mating. During maternal recognition of pregnancy goat interferon was detected on day 18 post mating, its absence signifies pregnancy maintenance has been taken over by the corpus luteum. Thus a very thin line exists between maternal recognition of pregnancy and its maintenance or sustenance by the CL. (Gillomot et al, 1998).

6 The Reliability Pregnancy tests

Various methods used for correctly predicting pregnancy in sheep and goats during gestation have been summarized in Table 2. The accuracy varies from 70 to100% with different ultrasonic equipment. Different models as well as principles involved have been extensively reviewed (Wani, 1991; Wani et al,1998) and other methods of pregnancy detection during this stage e.g serum progesterone determination, vaginal cytology, laparotomy, estrone sulphate are summarized (Table-2). Various techniques were also evaluated in assessing mid-gestation. The various pregnancy signs as quoted by

various researchers using ultrasonography are summarized in Table 3. Of late certain anatomical features in the live, developing conceptus in vivo have been reported. This is reviewed and a summary is presented (Table 4). Various live foetal measurements like Biparietal diameter, Amniotic vesicle diameter, foetal radius and Tibia lengths are reviewed and shown (Table 5). Various pregnancy related images, histological sections and morphology of endometeruim have recently be published (Wani et al 2007, 2006 abc) where images are presented 6-15

References

Alacam-E; Dinc-DA; Guler-M; Eroz-S;Sezer-AN, 1988. Veteriner-Fakultesi-Dergisi, Selcuk-Universitesi, 4(1),91-98.

Al-Merestani-MR; Zarkawi-M; Wardeh-M, 1999. Early breeding and pregnancy diagnosis in Syrian Awassi sheep yearlings. Reproduction –in-Domestic-Animals, 34(5), 413-416.

Blasco-I;Foklch-J; Echegoyen-E, 1989. Tecnica-Economica-Agraria, 20(82), 22-31.

Boscos, C.M; Samartzi, F.C; Lymberopoulos;A.G; Stefanakis, A; Belibasaki, S; 2003.. Reproduction in domestic Animals. 38(3), 170-174. Assessment of progesterone concentration using enzyme immunoassay for early pregnancy diagnosis in sheep & Goats.

Boscos. CM; Samartzi.FC; Lymberopoulos-AG; Stefanakis-A; Belibasaki-S, 2003.. Reproduction-in-Domestic-Animals, 38(3), 170 – 174. Assessment of progesterone concentration using enzymeimmunoassay, for early pregnancy diagnosis in sheep and goats

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1 Introduction
Multiple pregnancy poses particular problems for women, their infants, and for their caregivers. Women are likely to experience the common, unpleasant symptoms of pregnancy, such as heartburn, backache, hemorrhoids, difficulty walking, and tiredness to a greater degree than women with a singleton pregnancy. They are more likely to suffer from anemia, hypertension, pre-eclampsia, preterm labor, and operative delivery. The increased risks to the babies include congenital malformations, monochorionicity (both babies sharing one placenta), poor fetal growth, preterm birth, and perinatal death. For the survivors, in the long term there is a greater risk of cerebral palsy.

2 Prenatal care
A wide range of options for regular antenatal attendance are practised, ranging from modified shared care between obstetrician and general practitioner to weekly visits from the 20th week of gestation onwards. There is no evidence to suggest that one pattern of prenatal care is better than another, because this important research question has never been properly addressed. Regular prenatal visits permit screening for hypertension and pre-eclampsia by careful determination of blood pressure, and, if elevated, checking for proteinuria. Care for women with a multiple pregnancy who develop hypertension may be particularly important, and should follow current treatment recommendations.

2.1 Advice and support
Women with a multiple pregnancy need advice and support from caregivers to help them deal with the particular problems of multiple pregnancy and with the common, unpleasant symptoms of pregnancy, such as hemorrhoids, heartburn, and backache (see Chapter 13). They may be especially anxious about the pregnancy, the birth, and their ability to cope with the practical and financial demands of more than one new baby. Assisting women to find support, such as a special antenatal class for women with a multiple pregnancy or referring them to a multiple-birth support group, may help.

2.2 Nutrition
Fetal demands for iron and folate are increased in multiple pregnancy and anemia is reported more frequently than in singleton pregnancies. Routine iron and folate supplementation is often advised from the beginning of the second trimester, although this has not been shown to improve the clinical outcome of the pregnancy.
 
2.3 Ultrasound

If routine ultrasonography is not carried out, an ultrasound examination is indicated when multiple pregnancy is suspected. Routine early ultrasonography results in earlier detection of multiple pregnancies, the detection of mono-amniotic pregnancies (with greater risk), and the detection of some unsuspected congenital abnormalities. Earlier detection of multiple pregnancy has not been shown to improve fetal outcome.
The risk of neural tube defects, cardiac anomalies, and bowel atresias, have all been reported to be increased in twin pregnancies. Conjoined twins and twin reversed arterial perfusion sequence are rare anomalies that are found exclusively in multiple pregnancies. Early diagnosis of fetal anomaly enables appropriate counseling as to the care options available.

The prediction of amnionicity (number of amniotic sacs) and chorionicity (separate or joined placentas) by first-trimester ultrasound is possible, though its accuracy and the relevance to pregnancy outcome remains to be determined. In theory at least, knowledge of amnionicity and chorionicity may be helpful in a number of ways, such as in the differentiation of twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome from a twin pregnancy complicated by intra-uterine growth restriction, in management after a single fetal death, or where one of the twins has a major congenital malformation and selective termination is considered.
If twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome develops, several therapeutic options have been advocated. These include: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, repeated therapeutic amniocenteses, and techniques that interrupt the pathological placental circulation. The results of controlled trials of these therapies are awaited, although there has been minimal evidence to date that any of these improve infant outcome.
Poor fetal growth of one or more babies is a risk in a multiple pregnancy. No adequately controlled data are available on the value of regular ultrasound or umbilical artery Doppler for assessing fetal growth and well-being in multiple pregnancy.

3 Preterm birth
Preterm birth presents the greatest threat to infant survival. Counseling as to the signs and symptoms of preterm labor with advice to present to the hospital if they occur, together with a written information sheet, may be of value, although this approach has not been subjected to a controlled evaluation.
Prediction of preterm birth is difficult. Cervical assessment by digital examination or by ultrasonography has been reported to provide useful prediction of the risk of preterm birth.
 How frequent these assessments should be made is uncertain, and whether they are more beneficial than harmful is unknown.
Cervical fibronectin may prove to be useful in predicting which women will give birth preterm, although the main strength lies in its negative predictive value. Whether the measurement of fibronectin will be useful clinically to improve pregnancy outcome remains to be established by controlled trials.
Several prenatal treatments have been used in attempts to reduce the risk of preterm birth and its sequelae in women with multiple pregnancy. These include cervical cerclage, beta-mimetic agents, home uterine-activity monitoring, and hospitalization for bed rest. All have been evaluated by controlled trials but, to date, none have proven to be of value in reducing the risk of preterm birth.

3.1 Cervical cerclage
In normal pregnancy, the uterine cervix is thought to assume a sphincter-like function to retain the contents of the uterus. A congenital or traumatically-acquired weakness of the cervix, or the unusual physiological circumstance of multiple pregnancy, are factors that may render the cervix incapable of performing this function as efficiently as usual.
The data available from controlled trials of cervical cerclage in twin pregnancy are too few to be clinically useful. They are compatible with both a large beneficial effect and with a large adverse effect of the operation. Cervical cerclage does affect other aspects of clinical care and carries some specific risks. It should not be adopted specifically for twin pregnancy outside the context of further controlled trials of sufficient size and quality.

3.2 Prophylactic betamimetic agents
Trials have been conducted with a number of oral betamimetic agents, including isoxuprine, ritodrine, salbutamol, and terbutaline, in various doses, for the prevention of preterm labor in women with multiple pregnancy. In spite of the diversity of agents and the varying doses used, the results are consistent. No beneficial effect of prophylactic betamimetic administration has been detected on preterm birth, low birthweight, or perinatal mortality. Although prophylactic betamimetic agents have not succeeded in postponing delivery or in improving fetal growth, the four trials that provide information on the incidence of respiratory distress syndrome suggest that the frequency of this adverse outcome may be significantly reduced. No such effect has been found with prophylactic betamimetics in singleton pregnancies, and it might be a chance finding.
In the light of the theoretical dangers of chronic fetal exposure to betamimetic agents, prophylactic administration of these drugs should only be considered in the context of well-controlled clinical trials.

3.3 Home uterine-activity monitoring
Trials of home uterine-activity monitoring in multiple pregnancy have been small, and not enough detail is available to evaluate the potential sources of bias. There are suggestions that babies born to mothers using
home uterine-activity monitoring for twin pregnancy may be less likely to weigh less than 1500 g, or to be admitted to a special care nursery. Because of the high potential for bias, these data must be viewed with caution. Home uterine-activity monitoring, if adopted at all, should not be adopted outside the context of adequately controlled trials.

3.4 Hospitalization in multiple pregnancy
Prolonged bed rest in multiple pregnancy, with the aim of increasing the duration of gestation, improving fetal growth, and decreasing perinatal mortality, has been advocated for many years. The general considerations about the use of bed rest (see Chapter 14), apply equally strongly to its use in multiple pregnancy, as the practice is not innocuous.
Hospitalization and bed-rest in multiple pregnancy was introduced into clinical practice without adequate evaluation and the policy has still not been fully evaluated. Only recently have a few trials been conducted and further controlled evaluations are necessary to clarify the effects of this intervention. More information is available from twin than from higher multiple pregnancies.
There is some suggestion from these trials that routine hospitalization of women with twin pregnancies may result in a decreased risk of maternal hypertension, but a positive impact on more relevant outcomes has been negligible. Indeed the data suggest that routine hospitalization may have adverse effects. The risk of very preterm birth (less than 34 weeks gestation) and very low-birthweight babies was increased by routine hospitalization in these trials. No differences have been detected in the incidence of depressed Apgar score, admission to special care nurseries, or perinatal mortality.
Some obstetricians have suggested that hospitalization for bed rest in twin pregnancies should be applied only for women deemed to be at higher than average risk of preterm birth. Although this more conservative advice is possibly justified, there is remarkably little good evidence to support it. Only one such selective policy has been evaluated in a randomized trial. Comparison between the hospitalized and control groups of women with early cervical dilatation failed to show any benefits on the risk of preterm birth, perinatal mortality, fetal growth, or other neonatal outcomes. There is no basis for widespread adoption of the policy.
Only one trial of bed-rest in triplet pregnancies has been published. The results of this trial suggest that a number of adverse outcomes, including preterm birth, perinatal death, and low birthweight, can be reduced by routine hospitalization of women with a triplet pregnancy. The trial was small; the findings were compatible with chance; and further research is required.

4 Delivery
Virtually no data from controlled trials are available to help determine the choice between vaginal birth and cesarean section for women with multiple pregnancy. A single trial has assessed the effect of cesarean section for delivery when the second twin was in a non-vertex presentation. As would be expected, maternal febrile morbidity and need for general anesthesia was increased with cesarean section. No offsetting advantages in terms of decreased fetal or neonatal morbidity or mortality were found.

5 Conclusions
Additional support may be needed to help women with the emotional, practical, and financial demands of pregnancy and planning for more than one baby.
Routine early ultrasonography results in early diagnosis, detection of fetal abnormalities, and can determine amnionicity and chorionicity. Whether this improves the outcome for the mother or infant is unknown. Regular antenatal attendance permits screening for hypertension. Iron or folate supplementation may help to prevent anemia.
Prediction of preterm birth is difficult and the role of cervical assessment and clinical use of fibronectin remains to be evaluated by controlled trials. Therapies that aim to reduce the risk of preterm birth have not been shown to be effective.
There is currently no sound evidence to support the practice of routine bed-rest in hospital for women with a twin pregnancy; indeed the evidence suggests that this may be harmful. Whether or not such a policy would be justified in women at higher risk of preterm labor, such as those with triplet pregnancy or with early cervical dilatation, remains to be established.
The use of cervical cerclage, oral betamimetics, or home uterine-monitoring, for women with multiple pregnancy cannot be justified outside the context of adequately controlled trials. The indications for cesarean delivery with multiple pregnancy have not been established.

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What is an Ectopic Pregnancy?
An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg implants itself outside of the uterus. The most common place for implantation to occur in an ectopic pregnancy is in the fallopian tubes, hence the moniker “tubal pregnancy”. However, the fertilized egg may also implant in the ovary, cervix or abdomen. It is extremely rare for an ectopic pregnancy to result in a live birth.

Because the egg implants itself somewhere other than the uterus, it is not able to develop properly. As the egg grows, it stretches the organ in which it has implanted itself. Eventually, this organ, most likely the fallopian tube, will burst, increasing a woman’s risk of hemorrhaging, which requires immediate medical attention.

Signs of Ectopic Pregnancy
On the surface, symptoms of ectopic pregnancy mimic those of pregnancy, making it difficult to notice the warning signs. In general, though, typical ectopic pregnancy symptoms include:

late period
irregular vaginal bleeding
lightheadedness, dizziness or fainting
pain in the abdomen, shoulder, bladder and/or bowel

The most notable signs of ectopic pregnancy are sharp, stabbing pains, particularly in the abdomen. If you have had a positive pregnancy test and notice any of these tubal pregnancy symptoms, make an appointment with your health care provider right away.

Diagnosing a Tubal Pregnancy
Due to increased awareness about ectopic pregnancies, more prenatal health care practitioners are screening their female patients for this pregnancy complication. This increased vigilance is part of the reason why maternal death rates are declining despite the fact that ectopic pregnancy numbers are going up.

In order to diagnose an ectopic pregnancy, your health care provider will first administer a pregnancy test (if you do not already have a positive pregnancy test). Once a pregnancy is confirmed, a blood test will be performed to evaluate your levels of hCG. In a healthy pregnancy, this hormone doubles roughly every two days until the 11th week pf pregnancy. However, in tubal pregnancies, hCG levels increase at a much slower rate.

In order to determine how your hCG levels are rising, your health care provider may monitor your levels over a period of days or she may calculate what they should be based on your last menstrual period and the approximate length of your pregnancy. Blood tests done to measure the level of progesterone in your system may also be helpful as an ectopic pregnancy often produces lower than normal progesterone levels.

An ultrasound is commonly done in the early stages of pregnancy to see how the fetus is developing. During this routine procedure, your health care provider will be able to see not only your uterus, but also your fallopian tubes and ovaries. During this exam, it is possible for your health care provider to see whether the embryo has implanted in the correct location or not.

Treating an Ectopic Pregnancy
Because it is unlikely that the embryo will survive when it is implanted somewhere other than the uterus, and due to the risk of organ rupture and possibly maternal death, ectopic pregnancies are normally terminated. So long as your fallopian tube has not ruptured, this can be accomplished through the use of methotrexate, an injection drug that dissolves the embryo, allowing the body to reabsorb it. This is often preferred as it is a noninvasive procedure and helps to reduce the amount of scarring to your reproductive organs.

If it is not possible to use methotrexate, the embryo may be flushed out through a salpinostomy or removed through laparoscopy. However, if the organ in which the embryo has implanted itself ruptures, an emergency laparoscopy must be performed to remove both the embryo and the organ, most likely the fallopian tube.

Once the embryo has been removed, you will receive follow-up care and monitoring. This is done to ensure that your hCG levels return to zero. If they do not go down, you may receive further treatment with methotrexate to dissolve any lingering embryonic tissue remaining in the tube.

Affects on Fertility
Experiencing a tubal pregnancy can affect your future ability to get pregnant. If scarring, trauma or damage has occurred to your reproductive organs, either because of the pregnancy or methods used to treat the ectopic pregnancy, it can make it more difficult to conceive in the future. Additionally, experiencing an ectopic pregnancy puts you at risk of suffering another one in the future.

However, just because you have had one ectopic pregnancy does not automatically mean you will be infertile. While losing a fallopian tube does reduce your chances of pregnancy to about 40%, pregnancy is still possible. Many women who have had a tubal pregnancy are able to successfully conceive again within a year of their ectopic pregnancy.

If you are concerned about your fertility, speak with your health care provider about what you can do to preserve your fertility as well as increase your chances of pregnancy after a tubal pregnancy.

Are You at Risk?
Certain factors can put a woman at increased risk of an ectopic pregnancy. In numerous incidents, a tubal pregnancy results due to a blockage or narrowing in the fallopian tube, preventing the fertilized egg from traveling to the uterus. Factors that can increase your risk of having an ectopic pregnancy include:

Pelvic inflammatory disease
STDs
Pregnancy over age 35
Previous surgery on the fallopian tubes
Previous ectopic pregnancy
Endometriosis
Use of certain ovulation medications

Moreover, if become pregnant while using an IUD, you have a significantly increased risk of developing an ectopic pregnancy.

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